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Respiratory and locomotor patterns
Involuntary stretching during yawning in patients with pyramidal tract lesions: further evidence for the existence of an independent emotional motor system
Topper R, Mull M, Nacimento W
  Convergence of central respiratory and locomotor rhythms onto single neurons of the lateral reticular nucleus
Ezure K, Tanaka I
  Elévation involontaire du membre supérieur chez l'hémiplégique lors d'un bâillement, appelée hémipandiculation
la thèse du Dr Etienne Quoirin
 
La parakinésie brachiale oscitante Walusinski, Quoirin, Neau
Hand up! Yawn and Raise Your Arm Walusinski O, Neau JP, Bogousslavsky J.
 
Involuntary arm elevation during yawning in a hemiplegic patient
Na-Yeon Jung ,Bo-Young Ahn et al.
Chat-logomini
 
mise à jour du
11 septembre
2003
lexique

Bramble, D. M. and D. R. Carrier (1983). "Running and breathing in mammals." Science 219(4582): 251-6.
Mechanical constraints appear to require that locomotion and breathing be synchronized in running mammals. Phase locking of limb and respiratory frequency has now been recorded during treadmill running in jackrabbits and during locomotion on solid ground in dogs, horses, and humans. Quadrupedal species normally synchronize the locomotor and respiratory cycles at a constant ratio of 1:1 (strides per breath) in both the trot and gallop. Human runners differ from quadrupeds in that while running they employ several phase-locked patterns (4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 5:2, and 3:2), although a 2:1 coupling ratio appears to be favored. Even though the evolution of bipedal gait has reduced the mechanical constraints on respiration in man, thereby permitting greater flexibility in breathing pattern, it has seemingly not eliminated the need for the synchronization of respiration and body motion during sustained running. Flying birds have independently achieved phase-locked locomotor and respiratory cycles. This hints that strict locomotor-respiratory coupling may be a vital factor in the sustained aerobic exercise of endothermic vertebrates, especially those in which the stresses of locomotion tend to deform the thoracic complex.
 
Fugl-Meyer, A. R., H. Linderholm, et al. (1983). "Restrictive ventilatory dysfunction in stroke: its relation to locomotor function." Scand J Rehabil Med Suppl 9: 118-24.
Static and dynamic lung volumes, maximum respiratory pressures and lung compliance and resistance were registered in 54 subjects with hemiplegia or hemiparesis after stroke. These measures of ventilatory function were related to the degree of motor impairment and to the interval between stroke and investigation. In general ventilatory function, particularly parameters depending upon expiratory force, was restricted. This was most pronounced in subjects with severe hemiplegia while those with hemiparesis had only small changes. Since dynamic lung volumes (corrected for volume loss), lung compliance and resistance were all normal, it is evident that intrinsic lung function was unaffected. Inspiratory capacity - but no other measured variables of respiratory function - was lower six months after the stroke than earlier. It is suggested that expiratory muscle dys-coordination and weakness caused expiratory dysfunction while the less pronounced inspiratory restriction may be caused by muscular dysfunction and, as time goes by rib cage contracture.
 
Viala, D. (1986). "Evidence for direct reciprocal interactions between the central rhythm generators for spinal "respiratory" and locomotor activities in the rabbit." Exp Brain Res 63(2): 225-32.
Rhythm generators for locomotion and respiration have been previously identified in the high spinal rabbit treated with nialamide and DOPA. In curarized preparations, with no sensory feedback, simultaneous recordings of motor commands from the nerves to the diaphragm and to several hindlimb nerves have demonstrated that central (intraspinal) interactions exist between these respiratory and locomotor activities. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the nature of these interactions. Two main possibilities existed: "direct" interactions taking place between the rhythm generators; the activity of one of the rhythm generators modifying the other generator's activity at its "output" (at the interneuronal or motoneuronal level). The present analysis of the timing (and resetting) of activities in the phrenic, hindlimb extensor (gastrocnemius medialis) and flexor (tibialis anterior) nerves suggests a strong direct interaction between the two sets of rhythm generators. Each new locomotor cycle thus only begins at the termination of a "long-lasting phrenic burst" and a respiratory burst can only occur at certain parts of a locomotor cycle.
 
 
Persegol, L., M. Jordan, et al. (1988). "Evidence for central entrainment of the medullary respiratory pattern by the locomotor pattern in the rabbit." Exp Brain Res 71(1): 153-62.
1) Although periodic passive hindlimb movements can reproduce the enhancement of breathing frequency seen at the onset of muscular exercise, we have shown previously that they were unable to induce the 1:1 coupling which is observed between locomotion and respiration during galloping in quadrupeds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the existence of a central coupling in two experimental situations: first, decorticate - DOPA, and secondly, decerebrate rabbit preparations. 2) After DOPA administration in curarized, vagotomized, decorticate animals, an absolute coordination could be observed between the locomotor bursts (which developed in hindlimb muscle nerves) and phrenic activity. With the temporal evolution of the pharmacological activation, the coupling mode varied from 1:1 to 1:2 during the same experiment with a loss of coordination between these two forms. When the coordination between both motor activities was not produced in such conditions, it could be induced for some imposed frequencies of periodic passive motions applied to the contralateral hindlimb. 3) When the DOPA effects were completely over, a rostro-pontine decerebration allowed locomotor activity to be released and a tight 1:1 coupling could be obtained again between the two motor patterns in this new experimental situation. 4) An analysis of the data revealed that the various forms of coordination obtained in the different experimental situations are due to a central resetting of the respiratory and of the locomotor patterns. The capability of the hindlimb proprioceptive inputs to coordinate locomotor and respiratory patterns in the decorticate-DOPA preparation appeared simply linked to their ability to entrain the activity of the lumbar locomotion generator. It is suggested that these central reciprocal interactions, which have the properties of an entrainment process, are the result of interactions between the lumbar locomotion generator and the medullary respiratory one.
 
Persegol, L., M. Jordan, et al. (1991). "Evidence for the entrainment of breathing by locomotor pattern in human." J Physiol (Paris) 85(1): 38-43.
In human, it has been shown that interactions between locomotor and respiratory patterns may lead to locomotor-respiratory couplings termed entrainment. In order to prove that this coupling is really an entrainment, we tried to show that it obeys one of the expected rules, i.e. that it evolves and is not present for all imposed locomotor frequencies. For that purpose, seventeen healthy volunteers were asked to run on a treadmill at 14 different locomotor rates (instead of 2 or 3 in previous works) for 40 s. All the subjects did not exhibit the same coupling and different relationships could be obtained: the most commonly observed was 2:1 (2 locomotor activities for a respiratory one) but other forms could appear (4:1 and even 5:2 or 3:2). When the coupling evolution was followed in the same subject, it did not appear for all locomotor frequencies but only for locomotor periods close to harmonics of respiratory ones (absolute coordination). On both sides of these values, it progressively evolved to relative coordination and to the lack of coordination. When two forms of absolute coordination were observed in a same subject, the phase relationships followed the rules of the entrainment. Compared to data obtained in quadrupeds, these results suggest that the entrainment of breathing frequency by the locomotor activity is due to central interactions between the respiratory and locomotor pattern generators and does not depend on a chemical regulation avoided here by short locomotor sequences.
 
Kawahara, K., Y. Yamauchi, et al. (1994). "Interactions between respiratory, cardiac and stepping rhythms in decerebrated cats: functional hierarchical structures of biological oscillators." Methods Inf Med 33(1): 129-32.
Interactions are described of central origin between respiratory, cardiac and stepping rhythms during fictive locomotion in paralyzed, vagotomized, and decerebrated cats. Fictive locomotion was induced by tonic electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR). The coherence between heart beat fluctuation, the efferent discharges of the phrenic, and the lateral gastrocnemius nerves was used to evaluate the strength of the coupling between those three rhythms. The heart beat rhythm was modulated by the centrally generated respiratory and stepping rhythms. The central respiratory rhythm was modulated by the centrally generated stepping rhythm. Based on the present findings, we have proposed a new model concerning the functional hierarchical structures of the three biological oscillators.
 
Romaniuk, J. R., S. Kasicki, et al. (1994). "Respiratory responses to stimulation of spinal or medullary locomotor structures in decerebrate cats." Acta Neurobiol Exp (Warsz) 54(1): 11-7.
Respiratory and locomotor EMG activity was recorded in cats after a precollicular post-mamillary decerebration. Locomotion was induced by stimulating either the dorsolateral funiculus (DLF) in the cervical spinal cord or the medullary locomotor strip (MLS). At the onset of locomotion, both ventilation and blood pressure were enhanced. During locomotion, the activity of external intercostal muscles decreased but that of the internal intercostal muscles increased. The respiratory pattern changed with the onset of stimulation. The locomotor movements were evoked after a delay. The inspiratory-inhibitory Hering-Breuer reflex was attenuated. Stimulation of the MLS and DLF evoked similar respiratory and circulatory effects. Our data resemble the effects observed during stimulation of the subthalamic or mesencephalic locomotor regions. We conclude that respiratory changes are part of an integrated response involved in the onset of exercise and are independent of the neuronal site where stimulation evoked locomotion. In contrast to previous reports, we suggest that the pattern of interaction among respiratory, circulatory, and locomotor systems does not have to be the specialty of supramedullary structures. Coupling between locomotion and breathing during the post-inspiratory phase suggests that this interaction occurs at the medullary level.
 
Persegol, L., M. Jordan, et al. (1988). "Evidence for central entrainment of the medullary respiratory pattern by the locomotor pattern in the rabbit." Exp Brain Res 71(1): 153-62.
1) Although periodic passive hindlimb movements can reproduce the enhancement of breathing frequency seen at the onset of muscular exercise, we have shown previously that they were unable to induce the 1:1 coupling which is observed between locomotion and respiration during galloping in quadrupeds. The purpose of this study was to investigate the existence of a central coupling in two experimental situations: first, decorticate - DOPA, and secondly, decerebrate rabbit preparations. 2) After DOPA administration in curarized, vagotomized, decorticate animals, an absolute coordination could be observed between the locomotor bursts (which developed in hindlimb muscle nerves) and phrenic activity. With the temporal evolution of the pharmacological activation, the coupling mode varied from 1:1 to 1:2 during the same experiment with a loss of coordination between these two forms. When the coordination between both motor activities was not produced in such conditions, it could be induced for some imposed frequencies of periodic passive motions applied to the contralateral hindlimb. 3) When the DOPA effects were completely over, a rostro-pontine decerebration allowed locomotor activity to be released and a tight 1:1 coupling could be obtained again between the two motor patterns in this new experimental situation. 4) An analysis of the data revealed that the various forms of coordination obtained in the different experimental situations are due to a central resetting of the respiratory and of the locomotor patterns. The capability of the hindlimb proprioceptive inputs to coordinate locomotor and respiratory patterns in the decorticate-DOPA preparation appeared simply linked to their ability to entrain the activity of the lumbar locomotion generator. It is suggested that these central reciprocal interactions, which have the properties of an entrainment process, are the result of interactions between the lumbar locomotion generator and the medullary respiratory one.
 
Richard, C. A., T. G. Waldrop, et al. (1989). "The nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis modulates the cardiopulmonary responses to central and peripheral drives related to exercise." Brain Res 482(1): 49-56.
It is known that muscle afferents and the hypothalamic locomotor region (HLR) both project to the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis (NGC) and that the NGC is capable of influencing cardiovascular and respiratory variables. Therefore, the role of NGC in the cardiovascular and respiratory response to exercise-related signals was investigated in anesthetized cats. These signals were generated by stimulation of: (1) spinal ventral roots to induce hindlimb muscle contraction (MC) and (2) the HLR. Bilateral electrolytic lesion of the NGC at the pontomedullary border caused tidal volume, respiratory frequency and heart rate responses to HLR stimulation to be greater than the responses recorded prior to lesioning. Lesioning had no effect on the ventilatory or cardiovascular responses to MC but did decrease phrenic responsiveness; lesion had no effect on any resting values. In this preparation, the pontomedullary NGC acts as an inhibitory influence on tidal volume, breathing frequency and heart rate responses to the central command for exercise. In addition, NGC modulation of ventilation would appear to be selective for certain respiratory muscle groups.
 
Greer, J. J., J. C. Smith, et al. (1992). "Respiratory and locomotor patterns generated in the fetal rat brain stem-spinal cord in vitro." J Neurophysiol 67(4): 996-9.
An in vitro brain stem-spinal cord preparation from last trimester (E13-E21) fetal rats, which generates rhythmic respiratory and locomotor patterns, is described. These coordinated motor patterns emerge at stages E17-E18. Synchronous rhythmic motor activity, not clearly characterized as respiratory or locomotor, can occur as early as E13. With this preparation, it is now possible to study the ontogenesis of circuits and cellular mechanisms underlying these critical movements.
 
Funk, G. D., J. D. Steeves, et al. (1992). "Coordination of wingbeat and respiration in birds. II. "Fictive" flight." J Appl Physiol 73(3): 1025-33.
To determine whether an interaction between central respiratory and locomotor networks may be involved in the observed coordination of wingbeat and respiratory rhythms during free flight in birds, we examined the relationship between wingbeat and respiratory activity in decerebrate Canada geese and Pekin ducks before and after paralysis. Locomotor activity was induced through electrical stimulation of brain stem locomotor regions. Respiratory frequency (fv) was monitored via pneumotachography and intercostal electromyogram recordings before paralysis and via intercostal and cranial nerve IX electroneurogram recordings after paralysis. Wingbeat frequency (fW) was monitored using pectoralis major electromyogram recordings before, and electroneurogram recordings after, paralysis. Respiratory and cardiovascular responses of decerebrate birds during active (nonparalyzed) and "fictive" (paralyzed) wing activity were qualitatively similar to those of a variety of vertebrate species to exercise. As seen during free flight, wingbeat and respiratory rhythms were always coordinated during electrically induced wing activity. Before paralysis during active wing flapping, coupling ratios (fW/fv) of 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1 (wingbeats per breath) were observed. After paralysis, fW and fv remained coupled; however, 1:1 coordination predominated. All animals tested (n = 9) showed 1:1 coordination. Two animals also showed brief periods of 2:1 coupling. It is clear that locomotor and respiratory networks interact on a central level to produce a synchronized output. The observation that the coordination between fW and fv differs in paralyzed and nonparalyzed birds suggests that peripheral feedback is involved in the modulation of a centrally derived coordination.
 
Funk, G., I. I. Valenzuela, et al. (1997). "Energetic consequences of coordinating wingbeat and respiratory rhythms in birds." J Exp Biol 200(Pt 5): 915-20.
The coordination of ventilatory and locomotor rhythms has been documented in many birds and mammals. It has been suggested that the physiological significance of such coordination is a reduction in the cost of ventilation which confers an energetic advantage to the animal. We tested this hypothesis by measuring the external work required to ventilate birds mechanically during simulated flight. Patterns of wing motion and breathing were produced in which the relationship between wing motion and breathing was in phase and out of phase with the relationship seen during normal flight. Differences between the energetic costs of in-phase versus out-of-phase synchronization were particularly large (26 %) in instances where locomotion and respiration frequency were synchronized at one breath per wingbeat. The saving (9 %) obtained from in-phase versus out-of-phase coordination at the 3:1 coordination ratio seen normally in free-flying Canada geese was smaller but still supported the hypothesis that there is a significant net saving obtained from reducing the mechanical interference between locomotion and ventilation by locomotor­respiratory coupling.
 
Morin, D. and D. Viala (2002). "Coordinations of locomotor and respiratory rhythms in vitro are critically dependent on hindlimb sensory inputs." J Neurosci 22(11): 4756-65. télécharger PDF
A 1:1 coordination between locomotor and respiratory movements has been described in various mammalian species during fast locomotion, and several mechanisms underlying such interactions have been proposed. Here we use an isolated brainstem-spinal cord preparation of the neonatal rat to determine the origin of this coupling, which could derive either from a direct interaction between the central locomotor- and respiratory-generating networks themselves or from an indirect influence via a peripheral mechanism. We demonstrate that during fictive locomotion induced by pharmacological activation of the lumbar locomotor generators, a concomitant increase in spontaneous respiratory rate occurs without any evident form of phase coupling. In contrast, respiratory motor activity can be fully entrained (1:1 coupling) over a range of periodic electrical stimulation applied to low-threshold sensory pathways originating from hindlimb muscles. Our results provide strong support for the existence of pathways between lumbar proprioceptive afferents, medullary respiratory networks, and phrenic motoneurons that could provide the basis of the locomotor-respiratory coupling in many animals. Thus a peripheral sensory system involved in a well defined rhythmic motor function can be responsible for the tight functional interaction between two otherwise independent motor behaviors.
 
Schomburg, E. D., H. Steffens, et al. (2003). "Rhythmic phrenic, intercostal and sympathetic activity in relation to limb and trunk motor activity in spinal cats." Neurosci Res 46(2): 229-40.
During L-DOPA-induced fictive spinal locomotion rhythmic activities in nerves to internal intercostal and external oblique abdominal muscles and in phrenic and sympathetic nerves were observed which were always coordinated with locomotor activity in forelimb and hindlimb muscle nerves. A periodicity with longer lasting tonic phases could be induced by cutaneous nerve stimulation or asphyxia. This activity was observed in limb motor nerves as well as in respiratory motor and sympathetic nerves. A slow independent activity of the phrenic and intercostal nerves or the sympathetic nerves, which could be related to a normal respiratory rhythm or independent sympathetic rhythms was not observed. The findings indicate that during fictive spinal locomotion the activity of spinal rhythm generators for locomotion also projects onto respiratory and sympathetic spinal neurones.
 
Mechanical links between locomotion and breathing: can you breathe with your legs? H Lee, R Banzett